1.The comprehensive network shall:
(a)be as specified in the maps and the lists in Annex I and in Part 2 of Annex II;
(b)be further specified through the description of the infrastructure components;
(c)meet the requirements for the transport infrastructures set out in this Chapter;
(d)constitute the basis for the identification of projects of common interest;
(e)take into account the physical limitations and topographical particularities of Member States' transport infrastructures, as identified in the technical specifications for interoperability (TSIs).
2.Member States shall make all possible efforts with the aim of completing the comprehensive network and of complying with the relevant provisions of this Chapter by 31 December 2050.
1.In the development of the comprehensive network, general priority shall be given to measures that are necessary for:
(a)ensuring enhanced accessibility and connectivity for all regions of the Union while taking into consideration the specific case of islands, isolated networks and sparsely populated, remote and outermost regions;
(b)ensuring optimal integration of the transport modes and interoperability within transport modes;
(c)bridging missing links and removing bottlenecks, particularly in cross-border sections;
(d)promoting the efficient and sustainable use of the infrastructure and, where necessary, increasing capacity;
(e)improving or maintaining the quality of infrastructure in terms of safety, security, efficiency, climate and, where appropriate, disaster resilience, environmental performance, social conditions, accessibility for all users, including elderly people, persons with reduced mobility and disabled passengers, and the quality of services and continuity of traffic flows;
(f)implementing and deploying telematic applications and promoting innovative technological development.
2.In order to complement the measures set out in paragraph 1, particular consideration shall be given to measures that are necessary for:
(a)ensuring fuel security through increased energy efficiency, and promoting the use of alternative and, in particular, low or zero carbon energy sources and propulsion systems;
(b)mitigating exposure of urban areas to negative effects of transiting rail and road transport;
(c)removing administrative and technical barriers, in particular to the interoperability of the trans-European transport network and to competition.
1.Railway transport infrastructure shall comprise, in particular:
(a)high-speed and conventional railway lines, including:
sidings;
tunnels;
bridges;
(b)freight terminals and logistic platforms for the transhipment of goods within the rail mode and between rail and other transport modes;
(c)stations along the lines indicated in Annex I for the transfer of passengers within the rail mode and between rail and other transport modes;
(d)the connections of stations, freight terminals and logistic platforms to the other modes in the trans-European transport network;
(e)associated equipment;
(f)telematic applications.
2.Railway lines shall take one of the following forms:
(a)railway lines for high-speed transport which are:
specially built high-speed lines equipped for speeds equal to or greater than 250 km/h;
specially upgraded conventional lines equipped for speeds of the order of 200 km/h;
specially upgraded high-speed lines which have special features as a result of topographical, relief or town-planning constraints, on which the speed must be adapted to each case. This category also includes interconnecting lines between the high-speed and conventional networks, lines through stations, accesses to terminals, depots etc. travelled at conventional speed by 'high-speed' rolling stock;
(b)railway lines for conventional transport.
3.The technical equipment associated with railway lines may include electrification systems, equipment for the boarding and alighting of passengers and the loading and unloading of cargo in stations, logistic platforms and freight terminals. It may include any facility, such as automatic gauge-changing facilities for rail, necessary to ensure the safe, secure and efficient operation of vehicles, including their reduced impact on the environment and improved interoperability.
1.Freight terminals shall be connected with the road infrastructure or, where possible, the inland waterway infrastructure of the comprehensive network.
2.Member States shall ensure that the railway infrastructure:
(a)save in the case of isolated networks, is equipped with ERTMS;
(b)complies with Directive 2008/57/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council(1) and its implementing measures in order to achieve the interoperability of the comprehensive network;
(c)complies with the requirements of the TSIs adopted pursuant to Article 6 of Directive 2008/57/EC, except where allowed by the relevant TSI or under the procedure provided for in Article 9 of Directive 2008/57/EC;
(d)save in the case of isolated networks, is fully electrified as regards line tracks and, to the extent necessary for electric train operations, as regards sidings;
(e)complies with the requirements laid down in Directive 2012/34/EU of the European Parliament and of the Council(2), as regards acess to freight terminals.
3.At the request of a Member State, in duly justified cases, exemptions shall be granted by the Commission in respect of requirements that go beyond the requirements of Directive 2008/57/EC concerning ERTMS and electrification.
In the promotion of projects of common interest related to railway infrastructure, and in addition to the general priorities set out in Article 10, priority shall be given to the following:
deploying ERTMS;
migrating to 1 435 mm nominal track gauge;
mitigating the impact of noise and vibration caused by rail transport, in particular through measures for rolling stock and for infrastructure, including noise protection barriers;
meeting the infrastructure requirements and enhancing interoperability;
improving the safety of level crossings;
where appropriate, connecting railway transport infrastructure with inland waterway port infrastructure.
1.Inland waterways infrastructure shall comprise, in particular:
(a)rivers;
(b)canals;
(c)lakes;
(d)related infrastructure such as locks, elevators, bridges, reservoirs and associated flood-prevention measures which may bring positive effects to inland waterway navigation;
(e)inland ports, including the infrastructure necessary for transport operations within the port area;
(f)associated equipment;
(g)telematic applications, including RIS;
(h)the connections of the inland ports to the other modes in the trans-European transport network.
2.To be part of the comprehensive network, inland ports shall have an annual freight transhipment volume exceeding 500 000 tonnes. The total annual freight transhipment volume shall be based on the latest available three-year average, as published by Eurostat.
3.Equipment associated with inland waterways may include equipment for the loading and unloading of cargos in inland ports. Associated equipment may include, in particular, propulsion and operating systems which reduce pollution, such as water and air pollution, energy consumption and carbon intensity. It may also include waste reception facilities, shore-side electricity facilities, and used oil collection facilities, as well as equipment for ice-breaking, hydrological services and dredging of the port and port approaches to ensure year-round navigability.
1.Member States shall ensure that inland ports are connected with the road or rail infrastructure.
2.Inland ports shall offer at least one freight terminal open to all operators in a non-discriminatory way and shall apply transparent charges.
3.Member States shall ensure that:
(a)rivers, canals and lakes comply with the minimum requirements for class IV waterways as laid down in the new classification of inland waterways established by the European Conference of Ministers of Transport (ECMT) and that there is continuous bridge clearance, without prejudice to Articles 35 and 36 of this Regulation.
At the request of a Member State, in duly justified cases, exemptions shall be granted by the Commission from the minimum requirements on draught (less than 2,50 m) and on minimum height under bridges (less than 5,25 m);
(b)rivers, canals and lakes are maintained so as to preserve good navigation status, while respecting the applicable environmental law;
(c)rivers, canals and lakes are equipped with RIS.
In the promotion of projects of common interest related to inland waterway infrastructures, and in addition to the general priorities set out in Article 10, priority shall be given to the following:
for existing inland waterways: implementing measures necessary to reach the standards of the inland waterways class IV;
where appropriate, achieving higher standards for modernising existing waterways and for creating new waterways in accordance with the technical aspects of infrastructure of the ECMT, in order to meet market demands;
implementing telematic applications, including RIS;
connecting inland port infrastructure to rail freight and road transport infrastructure;
paying particular attention to free-flowing rivers which are close to their natural state and which can therefore be the subject of specific measures;
the promotion of sustainable inland waterway transport;
modernisation and expansion of the capacity of the infrastructure necessary for transport operations within the port area.
1.Road transport infrastructure shall comprise, in particular:
(a)high-quality roads, including:
bridges;
tunnels;
junctions;
crossings;
interchanges;
hard shoulders;
(b)parking and rest areas;
(c)associated equipment;
(d)telematic applications, including ITS;
(e)freight terminals and logistic platforms;
(f)the connections of the freight terminals and logistic platforms to the other modes in the trans-European transport network;
(g)coach stations.
2.The high-quality roads referred to in point (a) of paragraph 1 are those which play an important role in long-distance freight and passenger traffic, integrate the main urban and economic centres, interconnect with other transport modes and link mountainous, remote, landlocked and peripheral NUTS 2 regions to central regions of the Union. Those roads shall be adequately maintained to allow safe and secure traffic.
3.High-quality roads shall be specially designed and built for motor traffic, and shall be either motorways, express roads or conventional strategic roads.
(a)A motorway is a road specially designed and built for motor traffic, which does not serve properties bordering on it and which:
is provided, except at special points or temporarily, with separate carriageways for the two directions of traffic, separated from each other by a dividing strip not intended for traffic or, exceptionally, by other means;
does not cross at grade with any road, railway or tramway track, bicycle path or footpath; and
is specially sign-posted as a motorway.
(b)An express road is a road designed for motor traffic, which is accessible primarily from interchanges or controlled junctions and which:
prohibits stopping and parking on the running carriageway; and
does not cross at grade with any railway or tramway track.
(c)A conventional strategic road is a road which is not a motorway or express road but which is still a high-quality road as referred to in paragraphs 1 and 2.
4.Equipment associated with roads may include, in particular, equipment for traffic management, information and route guidance, for the levying of user charges, for safety, for reducing negative environmental effects, for refuelling or recharging of vehicles with alternative propulsion, and for secure parking areas for commercial vehicles.
Member States shall ensure that:
roads comply with the provisions of points (a), (b) or (c) of Article 17(3);
the safety of road transport infrastructure is assured, monitored and, when necessary, improved in accordance with the procedure provided for by Directive 2008/96/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council(3);
road tunnels over 500 m in length comply with Directive 2004/54/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council(4);
where applicable, the interoperability of toll collection systems is ensured in accordance with Directive 2004/52/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council(5) and with Commission Decision 2009/750/EC(6);
any intelligent transport system deployed by a public authority on road transport infrastructure complies with Directive 2010/40/EU and is deployed in a manner consistent with delegated acts adopted under that Directive.
In the promotion of projects of common interest related to road infrastructure, and in addition to the general priorities set out in Article 10, priority shall be given to the following:
improvement and promotion of road safety;
use of ITS, in particular multimodal information and traffic management systems, and integrated communication and payment systems;
introduction of new technologies and innovation for the promotion of low carbon transport;
provision of appropriate parking space for commercial users offering an appropriate level of safety and security;
the mitigation of congestion on existing roads.
1.Maritime transport infrastructure shall comprise, in particular:
(a)maritime space;
(b)sea canals;
(c)maritime ports, including the infrastructure necessary for transport operations within the port area;
(d)the connections of the ports to the other modes in the trans-European transport network;
(e)dykes, locks and docks;
(f)navigational aids;
(g)port approaches and fairways;
(h)breakwaters;
(i)motorways of the sea;
(j)associated equipment;
(k)telematic applications, including e-Maritime services and VTMIS.
2.Maritime ports shall be entry and exit points for the land infrastructure of the comprehensive network. They shall meet at least one of the following criteria:
(a)the total annual passenger traffic volume exceeds 0,1 % of the total annual passenger traffic volume of all maritime ports of the Union. The reference amount for this total volume is the latest available three-year average, based on the statistics published by Eurostat;
(b)the total annual cargo volume – either for bulk or for non-bulk cargo handling – exceeds 0,1 % of the corresponding total annual cargo volume handled in all maritime ports of the Union. The reference amount for this total volume is the latest available three-year average, based on the statistics published by Eurostat;
(c)the maritime port is located on an island and provides the sole point of access to a NUTS 3 region in the comprehensive network;
(d)the maritime port is located in an outermost region or a peripheral area, outside a radius of 200 km from the nearest other port in the comprehensive network.
3.Equipment associated with maritime transport infrastructure may include, in particular, equipment for traffic and cargo management, for the reduction of negative effects, including negative environmental effects, and for the use of alternative fuels, as well as equipment to ensure year-round navigability, including ice-breaking, hydrological surveys, and for dredging, maintenance and protection of the port and port approaches.
1.Motorways of the sea, representing as they do the maritime dimension of the trans-European transport network, shall contribute towards the achievement of a European maritime transport space without barriers. They shall consist of short-sea routes, ports, associated maritime infrastructure and equipment, and facilities as well as simplified administrative formalities enabling short-sea shipping or sea-river services to operate between at least two ports, including hinterland connections. Motorways of the sea shall include:
(a)maritime links between maritime ports of the comprehensive network or between a port of the comprehensive network and a third-country port where such links are of strategic importance to the Union;
(b)port facilities, freight terminals, logistics platforms and freight villages located outside the port area but associated with the port operations, information and communication technologies (ICT) such as electronic logistics management systems, and safety and security and administrative and customs procedures in at least one Member State;
(c)infrastructure for direct land and sea access.
2.Projects of common interest for motorways of the sea in the trans-European transport network shall be proposed by at least two Member States. They shall comprise:
(a)a maritime link and its hinterland connections within the core network between two or more core network ports; or
(b)a maritime link and its hinterland connections between a core network port and ports of the comprehensive network, with a special focus on the hinterland connections of the core and comprehensive network ports.
3.Projects of common interest for motorways of the sea in the trans-European transport network may also include activities that have wider benefits and are not linked to specific ports, such as services and actions to support the mobility of persons and goods, activities for improving environmental performance, such as the provision of shore-side electricity that would help ships to reduce their emissions, making available facilities for ice-breaking, activities ensuring year-round navigability, dredging operations, and alternative fuelling facilities, as well as the optimisation of processes, procedures and the human element, ICT platforms and information systems, including traffic management and electronic reporting systems.
4.Within two years after being designated in accordance with Article 45, the European Coordinator for motorways of the sea shall present a detailed implementation plan for the motorways of the sea based on experiences and developments relating to Union maritime transport as well as the forecast traffic on the motorways of the sea.
1.Member States shall ensure that:
(a)maritime ports are connected with railway lines or roads and, where possible, inland waterways of the comprehensive network, except where physical constraints prevent such connection;
(b)any maritime port that serves freight traffic offers at least one terminal which is open to users in a non-discriminatory way and which applies transparent charges;
(c)sea canals, port fairways and estuaries connect two seas, or provide access from the sea to maritime ports and correspond at least to inland waterway class VI.
2.Member States shall ensure that ports include equipment necessary to assist the environmental performance of ships in ports, in particular reception facilities for ship-generated waste and cargo residues in accordance with Directive 2000/59/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council(7) and in compliance with other relevant Union law.
3.Member States shall implement VTMIS and SafeSeaNet as provided for in Directive 2002/59/EC and shall deploy e-Maritime services, including in particular maritime single-window services, as provided for in Directive 2010/65/EU.
In the promotion of projects of common interest related to maritime infrastructure, and in addition to the priorities set out in Article 10, priority shall be given to the following:
promoting motorways of the sea including short-sea shipping, facilitating the development of hinterland connections and developing, in particular, measures to improve the environmental performance of maritime transport in accordance with the applicable requirements under Union law or relevant international agreements;
interconnection of maritime ports with inland waterways;
implementation of VTMIS and e -Maritime services;
introduction of new technologies and innovation for the promotion of alternative fuels and energy-efficient maritime transport, including LNG;
modernisation and expansion of the capacity of the infrastructure necessary for transport operations within the port area.
1.Air transport infrastructure shall comprise, in particular:
(a)air space, routes and airways;
(b)airports;
(c)the connections of the airports to the other modes in the trans-European transport network;
(d)associated equipment;
(e)air navigation systems, including the new-generation European air traffic management system (the "SESAR system").
2.Airports shall comply with one of the following criteria:
(a)for passenger airports, the total annual passenger traffic is at least 0,1 % of the total annual passenger volume of all airports of the Union, unless the airport in question is situated outside a radius of 100 km from the nearest airport in the comprehensive network or outside a radius of 200 km if the region in which it is situated is provided with a high-speed railway line;
(b)for cargo airports, the total annual cargo volume is at least 0,2 % of the total annual cargo volume of all airports of the Union.
The total annual passenger volume and the total annual cargo volume are based on the latest available three-year average, as published by Eurostat.
1.Member States shall ensure that any airport located on their territory offers at least one terminal which is open to all operators in a non-discriminatory way and which applies transparent, relevant and fair charges.
2.Member States shall ensure that common basic standards for safeguarding civil aviation against acts of unlawful interference, as adopted by the Union in accordance with Regulation (EC) No 300/2008 of the European Parliament and of the Council(8), apply to the air transport infrastructure of the comprehensive network.
3.Member States shall ensure that infrastructure for air traffic management is such as to permit the implementation of the Single European Sky in accordance with Regulation (EC) No 549/2004 of the European Parliament and of the Council(9), Regulation (EC) No 550/2004 of the European Parliament and of the Council(10), Regulation (EC) No 551/2004 of the European Parliament and of the Council(11) and Regulation (EC) No 552/2004, and of air transport operations, in order to improve the performance and sustainability of the European aviation system, of implementing rules and of Union specifications.
In the promotion of projects of common interest related to air transport infrastructure, and in addition to the priorities set out in Article 10, priority shall be given to the following:
increasing airport capacity;
supporting the implementation of the Single European Sky and of air traffic management systems, in particular those deploying the SESAR system;
improving multimodal interconnections between airports and infrastructure of other transport modes;
improving sustainability and mitigating the environmental impact from aviation.
Freight terminals or logistic platforms shall comply with at least one of the following criteria:
their annual transhipment of freight exceeds, for non-bulk cargo, 800 000 tonnes or, for bulk cargo, 0,1 % of the corresponding total annual cargo volume handled in all maritime ports of the Union;
where there is no freight terminal or logistic platform complying with point (a) in a NUTS 2 region, the terminal or platform in question is the main freight terminal or logistic platform designated by the Member State concerned, linked at least to roads and railways for that NUTS 2 region, or in the case of Member States with no rail system, linked only to roads.
1.Member States shall ensure, in a fair and non-discriminatory way, that:
(a)transport modes are connected in any of the following places: freight terminals, passenger stations, inland ports, airports and maritime ports, in order to allow multimodal transport of passengers and freight;
(b)without prejudice to the applicable Union and national law, freight terminals and logistic platforms, inland and maritime ports and airports handling cargo are equipped for the provision of information flows within this infrastructure and between the transport modes along the logistic chain. Such systems are in particular to enable real-time information to be provided on available infrastructure capacity, traffic flows and positioning, tracking and tracing, and ensure safety and security throughout multimodal journeys;
(c)without prejudice to the applicable Union and national law, continuous passenger traffic across the comprehensive network is facilitated through appropriate equipment and the availability of telematic applications in railway stations, coach stations, airports and, where relevant, maritime and inland waterway ports.
2.Freight terminals shall be equipped with cranes, conveyors and other devices for moving freight between different transport modes and for the positioning and storage of freight.
In the promotion of projects of common interest related to multimodal transport infrastructure, and in addition to the general priorities set out in Article 10, priority shall be given to the following:
providing for effective interconnection and integration of the infrastructure of the comprehensive network, including through access infrastructure where necessary and through freight terminals and logistic platforms;
removing the main technical and administrative barriers to multimodal transport;
developing a smooth flow of information between the transport modes and enabling multimodal and single-mode services to be provided across the trans-European transport system.
When developing the comprehensive network in urban nodes, Member States shall, where feasible, aim to ensure:
for passenger transport: interconnection between rail, road, air and, as appropriate, inland waterway and maritime infrastructure of the comprehensive network;
for freight transport: interconnection between rail, road, and, as appropriate, inland waterway, air and maritime infrastructure of the comprehensive network;
adequate connection between different railway stations, ports or airports of the comprehensive network within an urban node;
seamless connection between the infrastructure of the comprehensive network and the infrastructure for regional and local traffic and urban freight delivery, including logistic consolidation and distribution centres;
mitigation of the exposure of urban areas to negative effects of transiting rail and road transport, which may include bypassing of urban areas;
promotion of efficient low-noise and low-carbon urban freight delivery.
1.Telematic applications shall be such as to enable traffic management and the exchange of information within and between transport modes for multimodal transport operations and value-added transport-related services, improvements in safety, security and environmental performance, and simplified administrative procedures. Telematic applications shall facilitate seamless connection between the infrastructure of the comprehensive network and the infrastructure for regional and local transport.
2.Telematic applications shall be deployed where feasible across the Union, in order to enable a set of interoperable basic capabilities to exist in all Member States.
3.The telematic applications referred to in this Article shall, for the respective transport modes, include in particular:
for railways: ERTMS;
for inland waterways: RIS;
for road transport: ITS;
for maritime transport: VTMIS and e-Maritime services, including single-window services such as the maritime single window, port community systems and relevant customs information systems;
for air transport: air traffic management systems, in particular those resulting from the SESAR system.
Member States shall pay particular attention to projects of common interest which both provide efficient freight transport services that use the infrastructure of the comprehensive network and contribute to reducing carbon dioxide emissions and other negative environmental impacts, and which aim to:
improve sustainable use of transport infrastructure, including its efficient management;
promote the deployment of innovative transport services, including through motorways of the sea, telematic applications and the development of the ancillary infrastructure necessary to achieve mainly environmental and safety-related goals of those services, as well as the establishment of relevant governance structures;
facilitate multimodal transport service operations, including the necessary accompanying information flows, and improve cooperation between transport service providers;
stimulate resource and carbon efficiency, in particular in the fields of vehicle traction, driving/steaming, systems and operations planning;
analyse and provide information on fleet characteristics and performance, administrative requirements and human resources;
improve links to the most vulnerable and isolated parts of the Union, in particular outermost, island, remote and mountain regions.
In order for the comprehensive network to keep up with innovative technological developments and deployments, the aim shall be in particular to:
support and promote the decarbonisation of transport through transition to innovative and sustainable transport technologies;
make possible the decarbonisation of all transport modes by stimulating energy efficiency, introduce alternative propulsion systems, including electricity supply systems, and provide corresponding infrastructure. Such infrastructure may include grids and other facilities necessary for the energy supply, may take account of the infrastructure-vehicle interface and may encompass telematic applications;
improve the safety and sustainability of the movement of persons and of the transport of goods;
improve the operation, management, accessibility, interoperability, multimodality and efficiency of the network, including through multimodal ticketing and coordination of travel timetables;
promote efficient ways to provide accessible and comprehensible information to all citizens regarding interconnections, interoperability and multimodality;
promote measures to reduce external costs, such as congestion, damage to health and pollution of any kind including noise and emissions;
introduce security technology and compatible identification standards on the networks;
improve resilience to climate change;
further advance the development and deployment of telematic applications within and between modes of transport.
Member States shall give due consideration to ensuring that transport infrastructure provides for safe and secure passenger and freight movements.
During infrastructure planning, Member States shall give due consideration to improving resilience to climate change and to environmental disasters.
Environmental assessment of plans and projects shall be carried out in accordance with the Union law on the environment, including Directives 92/43/EEC, 2000/60/EC, 2001/42/EC, 2009/147/EC and 2011/92/EU.
Transport infrastructure shall allow seamless mobility and accessibility for all users, in particular elderly people, persons of reduced mobility and passengers with a disability.
The design and construction of transport infrastructure shall comply with the relevant requirements laid down in Union law.
Directive 2008/57/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 17 June 2008 on the interoperability of the rail system within the Community (OJ L 191, 18.7.2008, p. 1).
Directive 2012/34/EU of the European Parliament and of the Council of 21 November 2012 establishing a single European railway area (OJ L 343, 14.12.2012, p. 32).
Directive 2008/96/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 19 November 2008 on road infrastructure safety management (OJ L 319, 29.11.2008, p. 59).
Directive 2004/54/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 29 April 2004 on minimum safety requirements for tunnels in the trans-European road network (OJ L 167, 30.4.2004, p. 39).
Directive 2004/52/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 29 April 2004 on the interoperability of electronic road toll systems in the Community (OJ L 166, 30.4.2004, p. 124).
Commission Decision 2009/750/EC of 6 October 2009 on the definition of the European Electronic Toll Service and its technical elements (OJ L 268, 13.10.2009, p. 11).
Directive 2000/59/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 27 November 2000 on port reception facilities for ship-generated waste and cargo residues (OJ L 332, 28.12.2000, p. 81).
Regulation (EC) No 300/2008 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 11 March 2008 on common rules in the field of civil aviation security and repealing Regulation (EC) No 2320/2002 (OJ L 97, 9.4.2008, p. 72).
Regulation (EC) No 549/2004 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 10 March 2004 laying down the framework for the creation of the single European sky (the framework Regulation) (OJ L 96, 31.3.2004, p. 1).
Regulation (EC) No 550/2004 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 10 March 2004 on the provision of air navigation services in the single European sky (the service provision Regulation) (OJ L 96, 31.3.2004, p. 10).
Regulation (EC) No 551/2004 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 10 March 2004 on the organisation and use of the airspace in the single European sky (the airspace Regulation) (OJ L 96, 31.3.2004, p. 20).